With the Test Solution “Fitness to Drive”, fundamental cognitive dimensions relevant for safe participation in road traffic can be assessed. The selection of dimensions is based on established models of driving safety and driving behavior (Groeger, 2000; Hatakka et al., 2002, 2003; Michon, 1979), empirical validation studies (e.g., Sommer et al., 2008; Risser et al., 2008; Ledger et al., 2019), as well as recent meta-analyses and reviews (Anstey et al., 2005; Quintas et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023; Pergantis et al., 2024; Asimakopulos et al., 2011), and is aligned with national guidelines and legal requirements. Care was taken to design a compact assessment that covers key core dimensions.
Classical theoretical models conceptualize driving a motor vehicle as a multifaceted process involving different cognitive demands, partly including personality characteristics (Hatakka et al., 2002, 2003; Groeger, 2000; Michon, 1979). An action-theoretical model of driving behavior proposed by Groeger (2000) describes various cognitive processes underlying driving behavior. One central process concerns the “handling of current goal interruptions and conflicts.” This involves recognizing unexpected or dangerous situations. Particularly relevant for evaluating the current traffic situation and initiating an adequate response are observational ability and obtaining an overview. Ability to react and reactive stress tolerance also play an essential role, as they enable individuals to respond quickly to immediate hazards. Based on the four-level GDE matrix (Goals for Driver Education; Hatakka et al., 2002, 2003), basic cognitive functions such as concentration, attention, ability to react, obtaining an overview, and stress tolerance can be defined as important for the lower levels of execution and interaction.
Several studies in road traffic contexts have demonstrated the importance of obtaining an overview, which is closely linked to the dimension of attention (SCHUHFRIED, 2025a) (Sommer et al., 2008; Risser et al., 2008). The predictive validity of attention and concentration ability, as well as reaction ability, for driving behavior has been confirmed by various studies (Sommer et al., 2008; Risser et al., 2008; Schuhfried, 2025). In a comprehensive review, Anstey et al. (2005) also identified attention and reaction time as important factors for driving safety in older adults, alongside additional cognitive components including memory and executive functions. Pergantis et al. (2024) likewise emphasize the relevance of executive functions, such as attentional performance and working memory, for driving behavior. The importance of working memory is further supported by a review by Zhang et al. (2023). Another study showed that working memory is also the most frequently assessed executive function in common procedures for evaluating “fitness to drive” (Asimakopulos et al., 2011). Ledger et al. (2019) demonstrated the overall importance of cognitive functions for driving behavior in both older and younger drivers, including attention, executive functions, memory, spatial abilities, and general mental status. Depending on the study results, different dimensions showed particular relevance. Quintas et al. (2023) showed that in individuals with MCI or Alzheimer’s disease, attention, processing speed, executive functions, and spatial abilities were most strongly impaired in relation to unsafe driving behavior. Within executive functions, cognitive flexibility and processing speed are strongly related to obtaining an overview and working memory (SCHUHFRIED, 2025a).
An overview of legal frameworks and guidelines across various European countries shows that numerous cognitive domains are considered relevant for fitness-to-drive assessment. In Germany, BASt highlights the importance of concentration/attention, reaction ability, stress tolerance, and visual orientation. The French regulation NOR: INTS1621322A addresses reaction speed, visual attention, sensorimotor functions, executive functions, and processing speed. In Austria, observational ability/obtaining an overview, reaction behavior and stress tolerance, concentration, sensorimotor functions, intelligence, and memory are regarded as relevant areas. Overall, these national regulations frequently emphasize the importance of attention and concentration (e.g., Denmark: Indenrigs- og Sundhedsministeriet, 2022; Portugal: Regulamento da Habilitação Legal para Conduzir, 2014; Sweden: TSFS 2010:125, Transportstyrelsen, 2010), as well as psycho- and sensorimotor abilities (e.g., Portugal: Regulamento da Habilitação Legal para Conduzir, 2014; Sweden: TSFS 2010:125, Transportstyrelsen, 2010). Depending on the country, additional areas are considered, such as reaction ability and stress tolerance (e.g., Portugal: Regulamento da Habilitação Legal para Conduzir, 2014; Denmark: Indenrigs- og Sundhedsministeriet, 2022), general intelligence, or logical reasoning (e.g., Portugal: Regulamento da Habilitação Legal para Conduzir, 2014).
Based on these findings, the Test Solution “Fitness to Drive” includes the following dimensions and tests:
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Motor and reaction speed (RT)
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Reactive stress tolerance (DT)
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Concentration ability (TACO)
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Obtaining an overview (ATAVT-2)
This covers key areas that emerge as particularly relevant across theoretical models, scientific studies, and national guidelines. Within the area of psychomotor performance, the RT allows interpretation of the main variable “motor speed.” In accordance with the German BASt guideline, the results report uses a traffic-light system to indicate for each main variable whether the tested person performed below average (red, < percentile rank 16), in the lower average range (yellow, percentile rank 16–33), or in the average to above-average range (green, > percentile rank 33).
In addition, the joint results overview provides a concise verbal summary indicating how the tested person’s driving-related cognitive performance across the specified tests should be interpreted. The following applies:
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Sufficient driving-related cognitive performance if no main variable is below percentile rank 16.
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Restricted driving-related cognitive performance if values below percentile rank 16 occur in up to half — that is, two or fewer — of the main variables. In such cases, it should be considered that individuals may use compensatory strategies that buffer or compensate for weaker cognitive areas. These should be evaluated separately.
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Insufficient driving-related cognitive performance if more than half — that is, three or more — of the main variables fall below percentile rank 16.
This additional element facilitates a rapid assessment of the extent to which the tested person shows risk factors in performance areas relevant to driving and whether a more detailed evaluation or individual measures may be necessary.
Depending on country-specific requirements, additional tests may be administered together with the Test Solution “Fitness to Drive,” for example supplementary dimensions such as logical reasoning (BMT or INT logical reasoning), spatial visualization ability (INT spatial visualization), processing speed and cognitive flexibility (TMT-S), working memory (SPAN), or eye–hand coordination (2HAND). In addition, personality tests such as the FCB5 or, specifically for assessing driving-related personality traits, the IVPE-R may be included, as this area is also frequently referenced in national guidelines (e.g., Italy, Austria, Poland). However, these additional tests are not included in the overall evaluation and are not automatically displayed in the joint results overview (see Notes on evaluation and interpretation).
The test duration of the standard form for right-hand and left-hand traffic is approximately 30 minutes.
References can be found here: Literature